Shayaan Farooqi

Physics Grad jumping aboard the AI train.

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Sociological Theorists Summary CSS

Sociological Perspectives:

  1. Structural Functionalism
  2. Symbolic Interactions
  3. Conflict

Theorists:

  1. Ibn-i-Khaldoon 1332-1406
  2. Herbert Spencer 1820-1903
  3. August Comte 1798-1857
  4. Emile Durkheim 1858-1917
  5. Max Weber 1864-1920
  6. Karl Marx
  7. Parson

Ibn-i-Khaldoon:

  • Introduced the scientific method to social sciences.
  • Presented Concept of AL-ASABIYA in his book MOKADMA.
  • Al-Asabiya is the force that unites people.
  • This Unity or Solidarity is based on shared common experiences and emotions. Which means that people with similar experiences tend to form tight groups and stay united.
  • This sense of unity is strong enough to drive people together to form tribes and then societies.
  • Al-Asabiya is strongest when people depend on each other for their livelihood, like in Nomadic tribes.
  • This interdependence and desire to satisfy mutual needs results in Urbanization and formation of a Civilization.
  • Civilization is just an organized way for people to co-operate since it includes a system of Justice. So people dont have to use force with each other to have their needs fulfilled and can instead look to a higher authority.
  • This unity can not only form societies but also overpower the current government. Al-Asabiya is strong enough to be a source of power and authority for tribes.
  • Al-Asabiya can be weakened by Subjugation(Slavery) and Humiliation.
  • Al-Asabiya also weakens by itself as the tribes enters into luxury.
  • Divided society into Urban (Hazri) and Rural (Badvi) types.
  • Al-Asabiya is strongest in rural societies since they have to rely on each other for basic life necessities and protection.
  • Al-Asabiya is weak in urban societies where people live in luxury without fear for their life.
  • He also presented a theory for social change. This was also on the basis of Al-Asabiya. As society loses the force of al-Asabiya it becomes disorganized and a different society which has a stronger force of al-Asabiya takes its place.
  • Described 3 principles of social change:
    1. Physical boundary of states should be limited because it is impossible to control large states.
    2. Physical age of a state is 120 years in 3 equal stages of 40 years each.
    3. Rise and fall of nations is in cycles, when one nation falls: another nation rises to replace it.
  • Most famous work Ilmul-Imran later turned into Imraniyat (sociology).

Herbert Spencer:

  • Presented Evolutionary Theory or Laws of Evolution.
  • Every society evolves from simple -> complex and homogenous -> heterogenous
  • Divided evolution into 2 main categories:
    1. Simplicity to Complexity:
      • Every society evolves in 4 stages.
      • Simple Society is the most basic society with only families.
      • Compound Society is a large number of simple societies that form a clan society
      • Doubly Compound Society is a large number of compound societies or clans that come together to form a tribe.
      • Trebly Compound Society tribes join together and form nation states. This is the present stage the world is in.
      • He also Introduced the idea of static and dynamic sociology where statics refers to fixed social structures and institutions while social dynamics deals with continous movement from homogenous to heterogenous society.
    2. Militant to Industrial:
      • Whether a society is militant or industrial is determined by its relation to other societies. The trend is to evolve from militant to industrial societies.
      • Military societies have compulsory cooperation, Industrial societies have voluntary cooperation.
      • Military societies have a centralized government, Industrial societies have decentralized governments.
      • Military societies have economic autonomy. Industrial societies rely on each other economically.
      • In Military societies the state dominates over all organizations. Industrial societies have a very limited role played by the state.
      • Characteristics of a Militant Society
      • Entire structure of society is molded into military structure. Entire nation is a silent army. Defensive and offensive military action is predominant.
      • Military head is also the political head and has complete control over all his subjects.
      • Rigid hierarchy of power is throughout this society. Economic and material rewards are closely linked with social ranks, more power = richer.
      • Religious beliefs in this society also support the idea of a supreme authority. The religion itself is the same hierarchical organization as the society and the central Head of the society is also seen as the Ecclesastical(religous) Head.
      • Rigorous discipline is prevalent in all manners of life. State has full authority to interfere in lives of citizens. There are no individual rights and the state can not be questioned.
      • All members of the society are forced to cooperate (it is compulsory).
    • Characteristics of An Industrial Society
      • Each individual has personal rights and tried to maintain them.
      • Regulatory system is separate from the political system.
      • Free institutions are given security to grow without interference.
      • Less rigid class structure.
      • Less importance of religion and hierarchy
      • Individuals are the main concern of this society and the role of government is to ensure that the individual prospers.
      • The individual has the right to oppose an irresponsible government.
      • There is voluntary cooperation among citizens and they can interact using any contracts with each other as they wish.
  • Spencer also presented Organic Analogy. Where he considered the human society to be a single biological organism.
  • Following his organic analogy spencer considered various parts of society like state and economy to be like organs in the human body (heart/lungs/kidneys) which work interdependently and are necessary for the whole organism to function properly.
  • He further took ideas from biology and supported Social Darwinism which is basically Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution from nature applied to sociology.
  • Social Darwinism is based on 2 principles:
    1. Survival of the Fittest:
      • Spencer believed that nature automatically eliminates the weak parts. He believed that the weak parts of the human society like poor people, disabled people, dumb / stupid people should not be supported and instead they should be left to die since they are less fit and it is natural for them to be eliminated so that the stronger parts of the human society survive and this will make the human society evolve into something stronger.
    2. Principle of Non-interference:
      • Spencer believed that the job of the state was to prevent any external entities from interfering the matters of its society.
      • He stated that the state should not waste money on education and taking care of the poor. Instead the state should target its resources into ensuring that rights of individuals are protected.
      • Spencer argued that no one should interfere in the natural process of selection in society and that nature is more intelligent than man.
      • His ideal society had individuals pursuing their interests without being hindered by the state in anyway.

August Comte:

  • Introduced Social Physics to help solve and understand social problems.
  • Divided Science into Theoretical Science and Applied Science.
  • Believed that all sciences develop in 3 Stages:
    1. Theological Stage where all phenomena is accepted as the result of supernatural or religious events. Everything from religion is accepted without any questioning or doubts.
    2. Metaphysical Stage is when people start to write down their observations and have discussions about why they may be happening. This is where books are written. This is mainly a transitional stage where people are moving towards scientific lines of questioning and moving away from theology and religious beliefs.
    3. Positivism Stage is the final stage at which actual scientific experimentation and observations with deduction, induction and measurement is done. In this stage nothing is believed without evidence by experimentation and observation. All claims go through verification until there is consensus.
  • Also presented Static and Dynamic Sociology.
    • Static sociology deals with the study of a society which is in order. This order is the result of consensus and cohesiveness among all the elements of society which can include groups and institutions and organizations. Social structure is maintained.
    • Dynamic sociology is the study of social change. The natural condition of social change which is found in every society is called evolution. If it is according to people’s will then it is called social progress. However, if social change is brought by force it is called a revolution. The change starts from the mind and ideas of individuals and results in changes in moral, political and economic structure of the society.

Emile Durkheim:

  • Presented Social Facts as the main elements to be studied by sociology. He is considered to be the founder of Structural Functionalism which is a paradigm of studying sociology where the large scale view is considered instead of the individuals.
  • He defined social facts to be anything in society that puts external pressure on a member of society to act in a certain way. Examples of social facts can be culture, morals, traditions, norms, manners, guiding principles and beliefs.
  • Collective Conscience is ….
  • Also presented the theory of Social Solidarity. Social solidarity can be further divided into Mechanical and Organic solidarity.
    • Mechanical Solidarity is found in traditional and rural societies where everyone has very similar experiences. The members of society have similar economic status, similar beliefs, common values and culture. Such a society is very homogenous and its members have a high degree of solidarity or unity due to all the similarity. Collective Conscience is very strong in this society.
    • Organic Solidarity is found in urban societies where social change is very rapid. Customs and fashions are changing all the time. There is a very high degree of Division of Labour and specialization so people have very different professions and experiences. Interactions in this society are very contractual and the feeling of mutual benefit is the main reason for any solidarity. Collective Conscience is very weak in this society.
  • This theory of social solidarity is similar to the Al-Asabiya presented by Ibn-I-Khaldoon.
  • Also presented the Theory of Suicide where he described 3 types of suicide:
    1. Egoistic Suicide occurs when group solidarity grows weak. Typically seen in individuals who stop taking interest in matters of society or family and the society also stops taking interest in the matters of the individual. The individual feels isolated from society and considers life and death to be equal. This is a situation where social norms fail to put appropriate pressure on the members of society. Such suicide is found more in Organic societies than Mechanical societies.
    2. Anomic Suicide occurs when society undergoes rapid changes. This results in the norms and manners of society being broken and individuals are unable to adjust themselves which results in a normative gap. Social laws are considered weak in this situation since they fail to control the behavior of the individual. Society tends to fall into despair and there is uncertainty about the future. Lawlessness prevails, business slows down, projects get cancelled or postponed, marriages are postponed. Social norms are shattered. Disorganization is prevailent.
    3. Altruisitc Suicide occurs when the society has a very high degree of group solidarity. The people consider the interests of the group to have higher priority over the interests of the individual. An example would be the old people in northern cold regions of Tundra who kill themselves so that they would not be a burden on the limited resources of the society. In modern society soldiers who willingly register for war are committing Altruisitc suicide. In religion this idea of dying for the greater cause like Jihad in muslims is also found.
  • Considered religion to be the initial source of social solidarity and collective life. Described religion to act as a differentiating force between right and wrong. It allows man to separate sacred things from infance objects. Participation in Sacred ceremonies elevated the position of man in society. Without religion there would be no distinction of good and bad. Social and cultural norms would cease to exist.

Max Weber

  • Introduced idea of Social Action and redefined sociology to be the study of social action. Social action is anything that affects society.
  • Action is considered to be human behavior that has the purpose to convey some subjective meaning, this means that actions have a purpose which is called Meaningful action.
  • Meaningful action should be observed and measured by using the princples of statistics since there is uncertainty about the subjective meaning for the action.
  • Human behavior is complex and difficult / impossible to measure using math and statistics. The same is true for motives of an action.
  • Presented 4 types of social action:
    1. Purposeful Logical Action is carried out to achieve a certain well defined result and it depends on the ability of the actor. Different social situations may have different sources and purposes, However the actor is free to select any source based on his own capabilities.
    2. Value Oriented Action is something that has inherent or implied value associated with it. Like praying in religions.
    3. Affective Action involves emotions in the selection of the purpose and sources rather than raw capabilities. Such actions are very emotional in nature and are therefore mostly irrational and illogical. These actions are free from scientific observation and are a key part of cultural values of society.
    4. Traditional Action is according to customs and ceremonies of society. They don’t necessarily have any purpose decided by the actor, instead the action is performed simply as part of tradition.”This is the way”. These actions involve feelings and norms and are normally taught as part of family and educational institutions.
  • Presented 3 types of authority:
    1. Bureaucratic Authority is legal authority found in formal offices and depicted by the rank of the officer. The power of the officer is determined by the law that authorized him.
    2. Traditional Authority is found in beliefs, sacred norms and traditions. Priests, fathers or other religious figures are given authority as part of tradition.
    3. Charismatic Authority is the authority of an extraordinary person. Such authority is given to people who display wisdom, saintliness, knowledge, skill or charisma.
  • Theory of Bureaucracy, presented ideas on the structure of government and its offices. Defined it as a hierarchy. A rigid division of labor is established that clearly identifies regular tasks and duties of the particular bureaucratic system. Regulations describe firmly established chains of command and the duties and capacity to coerce others to comply. Hiring people with particular, certified qualifications supports regular and continuous execution of the assigned duties.
  • Characteristics of a Bureaucracy:
    1. Specialized roles
    2. Recruitment based on merit (e.g., tested through open competition)
    3. Uniform principles of placement, promotion, and transfer in an administrative system
    4. Careerism with systematic salary structure
    5. Hierarchy, responsibility and accountability
    6. Subjection of official conduct to strict rules of discipline and control
    7. Supremacy of abstract rules
    8. Impersonal authority (e.g., office bearer does not bring the office with him)
    9. Political neutrality

Karl Marx

  • Marx’s theories are based on the idea of a dialectic.
  • Dialectic philosophy was originally presented by G.W.F. Hegel.
  • Dialectic philosophy has the central idea based on contradictions. According to Hegel contradictions in understanding and goals is what drives historical change. Hegel considered these contradictions to be philosophical and primarily in the minds of the people.
  • Marx disagreed with Hegellian idealism and instead considered the physical matter to be the primary way to resolve conflicts and contradictions this is called Dialectic Materialism.
  • Thesis, Antithesis and Synthesis are 3 main aspects of dialectic Materialism. The dominant idea in an age is called the Thesis which is opposed by an Anti-Thesis and eventually after conflict these ideas are combined with shared values into a Synthesis. These conflicting ideas are never equally balanced and this keeps resulting in historical change and revolution.
  • Marx wanted to understand History and how human society evolved and for this purpose he utilized Historic Materialism or the Materialistic Interpretation of History. This is basically the application of dialectic materialism to understanding history where we consider humans as requiring food, water and shelter primarily and all other social, political and religious conflicts are placed secondary.
  • This historic materialism is considered to be an economic Interpretation of history and has the following aspects:
    1. Material and economic conditions are more important than idealogical or spiritual things.
    2. The structure of society is determined by its economic structure. This infrastructure consists of 2 things:
      1. Material forces of production
      2. Relations of production
    3. The economic infrastructure is the foundation for all other structures like educational, social, political, religious and legal. This network of other structures is called Super-Structure.
    4. Historical development is associated with forces of conflict between Forces of Production vs Relations of Production.
    5. All aspects of society are determined by the forces of productivity. Modes of Production determine social, political and intellectual life. Changes in the modes of production are what bring about social transformations.
  • Modes of production and Social Structures:
    • Society and its structures depend on the modes of production and it can be seen as 5 stages of development:
      1. Primitive society with Primitive[Asiatic] Modes of Production. This stage has no private property and production is owned by the community.This is the only stage which Marx claims to be the example of a classless society.
      2. Ancient society with Ancient modes of Production. This stage has slavery and one class owns the slaves and the means of production and they receive everything while slaves get nothing.
      3. Feudal Society with Feudal Modes of Production. Feudal lords and aristocratic landowners exploit the peasants who also do not own means of production.
      4. Capitalist Society and Capitalist Modes of Production. The capitalists own factories and industries, They also control all the wealth while their workers do not own means of production and are exploited as wage-slaves or tools.
      5. Communist Society and Commmunist Modes of Production. In the communist society the means of production are owned by the society. This stage is found when the industrial workers revolt.
  • Marx’s theory of Social Change:
    • Father of Conflict Theory. Marx believed that class struggle was the driving force of social change. As is displayed in his Communist Manifesto.
    • Marx considered society to be fundamentally dynamic not static and all changes were driven by conflict between social classes like Landlord vs Peasant, Owner vs Slave, Capitalist vs Industrial Worker etc.
  • Marxian Theory of Social Class:
    • Class is the manifestation of Economic Differentiation. According to Marx the definition of social class is economic in nature.
    • Class is not determined by Income or Occupation, It is determined by the position and function of the individual in the process of production. Thus a Class is defined as all people who share a common relationship to the means of economic production.
    • There are those who own the means of production : Slave Owners, Feudal Landowners, Owners of Factories and Captial. They all belong to the same social class. This is the dominant class.
    • There are those who work for the owners of means of production: Slaves, Peasants, Workers. This is the subordinate class.
    • The relationship between the 2 classes is not just of dominance and subordination but also of exploitation. The workers do all the hard work and the owners get all the benefit and surplus without any of the hard work.
    • In a capitalist society the dominant class is called the Bourgeoisie and the workers are called Proletariat.
    • Classes do not exist in the primitive communist society. They start to come into existence when the productive capacity of society expands beyond the level required for subsistence.
  • Marxian Theory of Class and Class Struggle or Class Conflict:
    • The idea of class war emerges from dialectical materialism and surplus value and the proof of this is visible throughout history.
    • Main aspects of Class Conflict:
      1. Development of the Proletariat.Capital is gained from the exploitation of the masses. The capitalist economic systems transform the masses ino workers and inculcated in them an awareness of common interest and a common consciousness. Thus the workers keep working and the Wealthy keep getting more and more capital.
      2. Importance of Property. An individual’s behavior is determined by his relation to property. Classes are determined based on the relation of an individual to the means of production. Capitalists are the ones who own the means of production and proletariat do not. Property divisions are crucial breaking lines in the class structure.
      3. Identification of Economic and Political Power. Political power emerges from economic power. The ruling class has power because it controls the means of production. The political and legal systems reflect the ruling class interests and laws are made to serve the capitalists in charge.
      4. Polarisation of Classes. Since there are only 2 classes : working class and the Capitalists. There is going to be a high degree of polarization.
      5. Theory of Surplus Value. Capitalists exploit the workers to generate surplus wealth and keep this surplus for themselves as Profit. The workers get no share of this profit. This sense of exploitation without reward is the main source of conflict between the classes.
      6. Pauperisation. Poverty is the result of exploitation and not scarcity. The rich get richer and the poor and working class continue to get poorer.
      7. Alienation. The extreme exploitation results in inhuman working conditions and results in increased alienation of man. Workers feel like they have no sense of control over the social world. A worker is considered a small cog in the large economic machine and feels as if his existence is meaningless.
      8. Class Solidarity and Antagonism. As the working class grows a common consciousness their class solidarity becomes crystallized. The working class bands together to form unions and associations to safeguard their interests. This can lead to riots and revolutions.
      9. Revolution. When class struggle reaches its peak there is a violent revolution which breaks the structure of the Capitalist society. This is most likely to occur during an economic crisis.
      10. Dictatorship of the Proletariat. After a revolution, the proletariat form a social dictatorship. The Bourgeoisie lose all power.
      11. Inaugration of the communist society. Finally the workers create a socialist society where means of production are publicly owned. There is no exploitation because nobody owns anything and everybody owns everything.
  • Dream of a Classless Society:
    • No exploitation and conflicts.
    • No opposing interests.
    • No antagonistic classes or strata.
  • Alienation:
    • Feeling of powerlessness and isolation.
    • Individual feels estranged and disconnected from society.
    • Comes due to lack of meaningful and creative work.
    • Feeling of lack of control over the social world.
    • 4 Aspects of alienation:
      1. Alienation from the object that worker produces.
      2. Alienation from process of production.
      3. Alienation from himself.
      4. Alienation from the community.
    • Alienation devalues and dehumanizes a worker.
    • Extreme divison of labour causes Alienation due to extremely limited role of individual and lack of responsibility or right to make meaningful decisions.

Parson:

  • Structional Functionalist
  • Continued With Organic Analogy. Considered society to be like an organism where institutions are organs. Some main aspects:
    • Institutions have a unique function.
    • All institutions work together without conflicts.
    • Institutions are interdependent.
    • Institutions have identifiable boundaries.
    • The network of institutions together is greater than any institution by itself.
  • Institutions perform positive functions.
    • They promote Value Consensus. This means agreement on the shared values of society. Important Values are a belief in work ethic and a belief in meritocracy.
    • The family is responsible for passing basic norms and values of society.
    • Education integrates individuals into a wider society. This provides indivudals with a sense of belonging.
    • Other institutions regulate individual behavior like police.
  • Societies have Functional Prerequisites inorder to survive.
  • 4 Main Functional Prerequisites:
    1. Adaptation. Adapt to the environment and the production of goods and services.
    2. Goal Attainment. Decide what goals society as a whole should aim to achieve.
    3. Integration. Achieve social cohesion.
    4. Latency. Socialise the young into shared values.
  • Needs of the society must be met before the needs of the indivudals.
  • Social change is due to social evolution:
    • Societies evolve from simple to complex.
    • Complex societies are better because they are able to adapt better to changes in environment.
    • Complex societies are also more productive since they can exploit a wider range of talents because they are meritocratic.
    • Initially technological and economic changes result in societies evolving after which societal change is driven by values.

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